Why Would You Decide to Use an Online Dating Site Factors That Lead to Article

Why Would You Decide to Use an Online Dating Site Factors That Lead to Online Dating - Article Example Online dating is a Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC). This paper seeks to conduct a study that would unearth factors contributing to online dating. Several significant studies have been conducted to determine factors leading to online dating. Kang and Hoffman based their analysis on a study conducted by Pew Internet and American Life Project. The model used by Pew Internet and American Life Project studied individuals from age bracket 18-95 years old, their level of education ranged from 1-7 years after high school. Additionally, 54.3 of the respondents were women. On the other hand, the study by Kang and Hoffman which sought to find out factors that predict usage of online dating and based hyperpersonal CMC as its theoritical framework, tested six variables; age, sex, education, trust, total number of tasks that a person does on the internet and perceived reliability of the internet. Results showed that several significant factors played fundamental roles in predicting the likelihood of an individual to use online dating module; Several literatures demonstrates trust as a significant factor in determining online dating. Honesty poses a major problem in the online dating realm since many individuals assume that others are giving inaccurate information about themselves. Kang and Hoffman argue that individuals who generally trust others may also trust those they meet through the internet. Sex factor is a determinant of online dating; results showed that women use online dating than men. Exposure to the internet also predicts internet usage, since determines the number of tasks an individual performs on the internet. For instance, graduate students respond with tremendous positive attitudes in creating online relationships than undergraduate students who comfortably use internet for other purposes.  

Linguistics and Reading Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Linguistics and Reading - Research Paper Example Hence, discourse analysis is a useful way of understanding the relationship between power and discourse. A common setting where these forces apply includes the classroom particularly during classroom discussions. A classroom is a learning place which heavily relies on communication in a socio-cultural, educational setting and thus discourse. Additionally, the classroom involves major teacher-student power relationships that underlie the learning process as both entities engage in meaningful discussions. In addition there are some other factors, such as class size, communication channels, technology, et cetera, that also affect discourse within the bounds of the classroom. According to a research conducted by Shepherd (2010), the role of discourse in balancing the power relationships inside the classroom in terms of teacher control over lessons and classroom dominance has changed over the years. However classroom discussions still remain a prevalent way to communicate and learn within the class. As such, discourse analysis provides a useful way of understanding classroom teacher-student interactions, most importantly classroom discussions, as they occur in the classroom setting. The classroom is a crucial space for learning however the setting is heavily impacted by the way communication occurs and is understood. Class discussions are a common way to think and learn by communicating collaboratively in a socio-cultural environment. The presence of two main individuals – the teacher and the student – in a learning context (class discussion) together with the role played by communication and discourse consolidates the importance of discourse analysis when studying classroom interactions, particularly during a class discussion. The two concepts of discourse analysis and class discussions are heavily related to each other; discourse analysis provides a methodology to understand the role of language and

Agree or Disagree with ISLAM Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Agree or Disagree with ISLAM - Research Paper Example This paper will examine closely one of them, namely Islam, examining its main beliefs and practices as well as present the opinion of the author about this religion. One should point out that there is a peculiar concept of Five Pillars of Islam: a set of principles and practices that define the identity of a Muslim. Thus, the first pillar which will be explored is called Shahada. To put it simple, this is a concise message that all true believers repeat, acknowledging their faith in one God and his only messenger Muhammad (Cornell 9). One would make no mistake pointing out that this has become one of the most famous phrases that are used to recognize Islam. The latter is a monotheistic religion so proclamation that God is one is the key thesis of it. In addition to that shahada also argues that there is no other source of wisdom that the one which was presented by Muhammad, namely the Quran. The next pillar which is essential for the understanding of the religion is question is called salat. Originally, this word means prayer or more closely – the practice of praying. Indeed, the Muslims are known to pray much more than the representatives of the other religions, five times a day. There are five prayers which true believers of Islam should perform: the one at daybreak, noon, midafternoon, sunset and in the evening. As one can easily see, they are separated among the day at almost equal intervals so that people are able to pray and to achieve their personal goals as well. In addition to that it allows a person to concentrate one’s mind on the devotion to God. The third pillar which is able to contribute to a correct understanding of Islam as a system is called zakat. As some of the researchers put it, â€Å"zakat is a good demonstration of Islam’s commitment to social justice† (Rane 23). Indeed, this pillar stands for a certain amount of money that all the Muslims are required to pay so that the money will be directed to the

Leadership Styles of Ho Chi Minh and Ngo Dinh Diem Essay

Leadership Styles of Ho Chi Minh and Ngo Dinh Diem - Essay Example Ho Chi Minh stood to be more powerful in a symbolic context, a standing symbol of the opposition to American efforts, a foe that was elusive and almost impossible to reach by the modern warfare machinery at the disposal of America, a foe that evolved into a mythical personification of the Communist resistance (Duiker, 1996, p. 360). In fact, Ho Chi Minh stood to be the real driving force, sans whom, it would have been impossible to think of a united Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh was a truly charismatic leader who appealed to the expectations and cultural affiliations of a nation that had remained subservient for a long time (Duiker, 1994, p. 212). There is no denying the fact that Ho Chi Minh’s strategy to project oneself as a humble and motivated, old man, with a sense of vision and a knack for down to earth wisdom commanded a great emotional appeal and sway amongst the Vietnamese masses (Duiker, 1994). He was decisively always in touch with the popular aspirations and sentiments. In contrast, Diem happened to be a modern Nationalist, an authoritarian leader who intended to pursue his own agenda (Jacobs, 2005, p. 11). Yet, Diem was always perceptible of popular aspirations and well understood that his leanings towards an American agenda will project him as a puppet nationalist, subservient to the will of the Americans. So, to achieve his purpose, he devised the strategy of rousing the South Vietnamese peasantry for support, while steadily reducing the nation’s dependence on America (Jacobs, 2005). Though being a competent leader, eventually he ended up being a scapegoat of the American disappointment. Though Diem pursued an authoritarian approach towards leadership, this approach on his part was necessary in the sense that a Western style approach towards leadership would not have gone well in a society that was given to a

Exercises Essay Example for Free

Exercises Essay I think it is an appropriate metaphor. Brain has the faculty of talking, laughing, crying, thinking and so forth. Without brain, human cannot exist. In the similar way, engine performs all the functions in the vehicle. The car is consisted of more than 20,000 parts. Even though it is not small number, it is nothing when it compared to the human neuron system. Anyway, neuron system is controlled by brain, of course, car parts are controlled by engine. Therefore, when there is a little bit damage at any part of the brain, specific features cannot be operated. It is the same story about the vehicle. There are four evidences. First, if placing an object in the sprit brain patients hand, left-right asymmetry observed. Second, when showing an image in the sprit brain patients visual field, the asymmetry is observed. Third, dichotic listening test shows language is lateralized. Left hemisphere is superior for linguistic stimuli such as syllable however right hemisphere is superior for nonverbal stimuli such as environmental sounds. Finally, the corpus callosum makes the two halves become two different mental spheres. The answer is NO. The evidence is provided by the patterns of neuronal activity in people reading different kinds of writing. For instance, Japanese language has two systems of writing. One is kana which is based on the sound system of the language. The other system, kanji, is not based on that system. Japanese with left hemisphere damage are impaired in their ability to read kana, while people with right hemisphere damage are impaired in their ability to read kanji. Plus, experiments suggest that the right hemisphere is better and faster than the left hemisphere at reading kanji, and vice versa.

Albert Beveridge | The March of the Flag Speech

Albert Beveridge | The March of the Flag Speech Albert Beveridge, an enthusiastic imperialist, was campaigning for the Indiana senator seat in 1898 when he delivered The March of the Flag speech. The speech, which was published later in the Indianapolis Journal, was pronounced one month after the signing of armistice. The speech aimed at promoting US imperialism both as a divine and national mission that originated with Thomas Jefferson. In the speech, he used religious rhetoric and invoked God eleven times to appeal to an audience. The audience expected politicians to know the Holy Scriptures and took divine Providence as Manifest Destiny. He envisaged the US taking a colonial which he defined in terms of a divine mission. Running as the party of prosperity, economic stability and the gold standard, Republicans won the 1896 presidential election. William McKinley easily defeated the populist Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan, having gotten enormous campaign contributions mainly from big businesses. He was to usher in a long period of republican dominance in the countys politics. During the period, Cuba was experiencing a humanitarian crisis and the US intervened by attacking Spain in April 1898, quickly acquiring Cuba, the Philippines and Puerto Rico. However, in the Philippines, it took a long and brutal war to quell mounting internal rebellion. When the speech was being delivered, the status of the new territories had not been settled. Through the speech, Beveridge put forward the idea that the US was obligated to extend civilization to the conquered territories as a key platform for bolstering American economic strength. The speech aimed at celebrating American victory. However, behind the enthusiasm lay a burning desire to counter the critics of the imperialist move who Beverage referred to as they in the speech (paragraph 10). The critics, who constituted the great proportion of the electorate, were adamantly opposed and very reluctant to embrace an idea of an imperial America. The speech starts with adulation of his country in epic terms (paragraphs 1-3). Later, he puts across the main issue behind the campaign in paragraphs 4 to7: the decision to or not to pursue an imperialist policy. In paragraphs 8-11, he justifies his countrys pursuance of the imperialist policy and answers objections of anti-imperialists. The objections, he says defies the notion of patriotism and celebration of Americas power. Beveridges first argument was founded on the fact that his countys geographical position gave it political and economic power in terms of resources, size and location dividing the two imperial oceans. This assertion implied that Americas superiority was beyond that of all European powers. In paragraph 3, he refers to myth of the west in relation to the unexplored land or wilderness (paragraph 3). He mentions the heroes of expansionary wars and puts forward a mythic observation of the western conquest of the 1840s (paragraph 7). Beveridges third argument centres on racial superiority. He alludes to the blood (paragraph 2) and evokes the feeling of power associated as evidenced by the virility of the countrys multiplying people. In his view, the increase in American population is sue to their virility and is not related to immigration: this illustrates the mythic approach that America gives to its problems. President Roosevelt would pose as an energetic and virile man on several occasions. This cult of force, power and energy suggests a Darwinian twist in Beverigdes ideas. He also uses religious arguments to advance his idea of imperialism. Reading through the speech, one can be forgiven for thinking that it is a piece of O Sullivans Manifest Destiny. The only variation is that Beveridges religious propositions were mostly expressed in a scientifically inspired language. To his country, the grace of God is feels as inevitable. He later makes reference to natures law in regard to the divine determinism thereby directing his argument in a pseudo scientific explanation of imperialism. In paragraph 5, Beveridge adds yet another dimension to his argument-that of a historical mission of duty. This suggests a traditional puritan idea of stewardship as renewed by the Gospel of wealth during the Gilded Age. Stewardship aimed at civilising people and converting them to Christianity at the same time. Along with the call to stewardship came the need to extend democracy to those perceived to be oppressed. Ironically, the freedom that the American liberators could bring didnt go as far as extending freedom to all. Beveridge calls it rules of liberty self-government. Beveridges insistence on the sense of mission blankets what is a major preoccupation for his country economical predominance. In paragraph 6, he uses the word reward in reference to the parable of Talent. This is a clever marriage of religious economic rhetoric. In his view, rewards were to come in form of new riches and markets- an idea prevalent in the Gospel of wealth that takes wealth for Gods blessing. This shows that the real aim behind imperialism is indeed commercial supremacy. The recurrence of the words domination and power in last paragraph are indicators of this fact. Contextually, the approaching elections were his countrys short term preoccupation. In the long term, the preoccupation was whether the new territories would be annexed to America. Beveridge wanted even more territories to be annexed after the Philippines. His stand was that the values of the American Revolution were not contradictory to the policy of annexation and the views of those living in the annexed territories. To him, the colonised were inferior people who couldnt enjoy the values of American Revolution in equal measure to the Americans. This was a flat rejection of the notion of equality (paragraph 8-10). The constitution should not follow the flag- i.e. the annexed territories shouldnt enjoy the constitutional entitlements of his countrys constitution. His racist mindset clearly comes to the fore in chapter 10 when he describes as inferior the people of foreign lands as savages and alien populations. He envisaged a colonial America governing the new territories since England did it to America. Besides, he explains that the Indians experience offered ideas as to how to handle the conquered. In clearly distinctive wording of we versus them, he is opposed to assimilation of those savages with the mainstream Americans (paragraph 8). His mentality correlates well with that of southerners towards the blacks prior to the Civil War. Finally, he defends the Philippines conquest as a rampart to the then greedy competition for territories by world powers saying that if US didnt do it, other powers would do so. The article is no doubt a celebration of American mythical and heroic founding. It features an explicit show of force and brutality: economic domination of conquered territories, virility of the American population, racial competition and accumulation of wealth at the expense of conquered territories. It evokes the feeling of American supremacy since its founding and the brutal materialism that continues to define American way of life down to the present. The vocabulary indicates both cynicism and naivety. The militant celebration served to convince the deeply cynical electorate to pull in the direction of imperial America. It is naive to the fact that such imperialism deeply violated the values of America as a nation, a fact that could not resonate well with not only the electorate but also the leftist leaning statesmen of the time. To best drive his point home, he insisted on syntactical patterns and repetition of words to bring the audience to his point of focus. His frequent use of questions and answers gave the speech a polemical quality and seemed like a dialogue with his audience. This particularly made the cynical audience evaluate its stand with every posing of a question and giving of a suggested answer. The speech is highly representative of a critical and decisive moment of history in the making of American nation, capturing in great colour the prevalent ideology then. The speech brought out the natural fusion of state policy and Biblical injunction (religion). Implicit in the speech is the ideology that the non-white world was inferior and unable to govern itself. It therefore needed the benevolent Americans civilizing affects. Alexander K. McClure, ed (1902). Famous American Statesmen Orators. VI. New York: F. F. Lovell Publishing Company. p. 3. Book Review: A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights Book Review: A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights Book review of A FIELD OF ONE’S OWN: GENDER AND LAND RIGHTS IN SOUTH ASIA by BINA AGARWAL (Cambridge South Asian Studies, 1994) This book is first of its kind. It is the first major study of gender and land rights of woman in the region. This book aims to tackle various gender bias arguments that are put forward by patriarchal society for not giving women the land rights. This book has been of utmost significance in affecting policies providing land rights to women. As in India, it prepared the ground for the incorporation of fairly radical recommendations in Ninth Five year plan. It also led ministry of rural areas and employment in November, 1997 to set up 3 member committee for Gender equality in land devolution in tenurial laws to reform the rules governing inheritance of agricultural land.[1] Book starts with emphasising the role of women in major movements be it Chipko movement in UP or Bodhgaya movement in Bihar, yet women did not receive any share of land that was distributed after these movements. She also describes these struggles vividly at the end of the book that how women participated in Tebhaga struggle, Telangana struggle, Bodhgaya struggle yet the benefits were received all by males and they were said to get back to their household work. It is only in Bodhgaya struggle that they managed to get land jointly in their names after a strenuous struggle. Agarwal pointed out the role of the state in establishing women’s land rights through land distribution. There has been always focus on basic needs such as education, health of women, but she explains it is equally important to focus on giving land rights to women in policy formulation. State has assumed that giving land to male would take care of complete family including women. Assumption of family as singl e entity and benefits get distributed equally holds in state’s allocation of land. But she said that bargaining power plays as much role inside household as much in market. She stressed on women having â€Å"independent rights in land† demanding rights not just in law but in practice as well. This is what would essentially give women more bargaining power according to her. Though she says that an even joint title over land is also beneficial for women than having no land but having independent control over land would give them greater flexibility. Role of the state in establishing land rights for women have been emphasised often in this book. It has well evidenced in this book that because state does not show much interest in giving rights to women that the issue remains suppressed under the carpet. Like it was shown in the case of Garos, a tribal community in North-east India that state policies was largely responsible for erosion of women land rights. She very well also focuses on the fact that how scholars and policy makers have wrongly interpreted Marxist ideology. Engels said â€Å"In capitalist societies, gender relation would be hierarchical among property owning families of bourgeoisie where women did not go out to work and egalitarian in property less proletarian families where women were in labour force.† It was essentially focusing on the fact that abolition of private property could restore women land rights. This was largely ignored by even the left wing parties whose main focus was on land redistribution. While discussing the absence of a gendered focus in redistributive programmes, Operation Barga in West Bengal is taken as a case in point, where primarily men were registered. While the criticism on grounds of non-registration of women is perfectly valid, the critique mounted of the Left certainly needs to take note of the issues involved, especially since the left-inclined women were some of the most outspoken in demanding land rights for women. While pointing out the patriarchal bias in land reforms implemented by Left-led governments, it may have also been useful to explore what implications the abandonment of the land reforms programme altogether by other political configurations has on the economy in general and the lives of women specifically.[2] Agarwal claims that despite the legislations favouring land rights to women, very few have effective land control. Even in the few cases where women had land rights, the right to decision concerning sale of land or produce of land rests with male family head or male kin. In some cases, land rights were not given in a fair manner. Women would get a lower share than their male counterparts. Agarwal then comes on to the issue which is the main argument of Agarwal on why land rights are at all important for women and society in general. It is premised on: a) women’s bargaining power increases in home as well as in society (b) it is easy to find non farm employment opportunities (c) children are better taken care of if women has the money in her hand (d)Security of women will be assured if she has an asset (e)land will not be fragmented if it in the hands of women and its productivity will rise and so on. Likewise various reasons for giving rights to women have been brought forth from welfare, empowerment and equality perspectives. Enough reasons and counter reasons of providing land to women have been provided. Though scholars like Cecile Jackson has argued that increased women participation in land rights will induce conflict in household rather than mitigating it[3]. But Agarwal argues here that women already are in conflict in household going through various forms of harassment and violence. She says â€Å"In any case, if everything difficult were to be set aside on the argument that it might cause intra-family conflict, then where would we go with women’s struggles over reproductive rights, or over gend er-equal education, or over their freedom to choose their marriage partners or professions, and so on?†[4] She claims that giving rights to women who works on land will lead to more productivity from some empirical works. But Jackson refuses to take this argument and says this is just the logic of incentives that work here. So even if men are given rights they will have more incentive to increase productivity. But to propose that transfer of land from male to female ownership within a landed household is justified on this evidence is another matter entirely. Agarwal very well inculcated the argument of increasing bargaining power of women at household, community and the state level for empowerment of women. A member’s bargaining position is determined by the strength of person’s fall back position. If women possess an asset it will not only improve their fall back position but also give them greater bargaining power both within the household as well as outside. They can bargain for subsistence within the family and for fair distribution of resources in the community. Implicit or explicit bargaining can occur between an individual and the community over the rules governing economic resource use, political positions and social behaviour. Women’s bargaining strength with the state depends on factors such as whether they are able to organize themselves into groups and garner the support of media. Agarwal also brings forth the fact that it is majorly inheritance and succession practices which is customary rather than defined by law. In this customary inheritance of ancestral property, land goes to males of the family. She has pointed that this succession practice was not biased earlier where tribes like Garos, Nayars in India and many in Sri Lanka gave land rights and inheritance rights to women. However this has slowly eroded due to changes in customary practices and scarcity of land over which women had little control. She tries to find out what really defines land rights or inheritance rights for women by studying various communities in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. She extensively studies and tabulates the nature of communities, marriage practices, marries close kin or not, residence after marriage, sexual freedom. Causation was established thus that if women marry with a close kin or remain within the village after marriage they can exercise control ov er any inherited property. However even in matrilineal or bilateral communities, jural authority or authority to participate in caste council rested with males. This is an essential feature which restricted women to have control over their lands. Their participation in caste councils have been fundamentally restricted which intensified the sufferings of women as there was no one to listen to their apathy. So as Agarwal says they ‘largely remain takers and not makers of many decisions that deeply affect their lives’. This is emphasised often that if women enter the struggle through ‘state apparatus’, it could be a crucial step towards women empowerment. Agarwal has also captured the essential aspect of this debate that why women don’t exercise their rights even if they can and is defined under law. Women tend to face various difficulties while inheriting land in traditionally patrilineal communities. They tend to voluntarily give up land rights in lieu of getting access to her brother’s house. Brother’s support is considered crucial in every aspect of women’s life customarily. Also women are at the receiving end of hostility from male kin in case she tries to exercise her rights. They are dependent on male kin for mediation with outside world. Other reason is that she finds it difficult to have land rights is lack of support from village bodies and government official as they are not allowed to participate in village panchayats and state bodies. Also the patwaris (village land records official) commonly present in Northern India favour custom law over existing law by registering land in names of males of the family only. Again the concern of unwillingness of the state and government officials to protect the rights of women is put forth. Even if the state enforces laws for women but it does not ensure practice of it rather promotes unwritten customary laws. Thus she points out that it will be less difficult to enforce land rights in Nepal, Sri Lanka and south India where the customs favouring women rights are into existence. It would be much difficult to apply in Pakistan, Northern India. Further Agarwal gives counter arguments for the reasons put forward by patriarchal society for not giving share of economic resources to women. Firstly, it is believed that if women own land they will not be able to access resources and since they are generally illiterate they will not be able to cultivate effectively. Agarwal counter argued it by providing a very admiring solution to this. She said that it will be effective if women could cultivate jointly as a group. This way they can pool resources and also can access credit easily. Also women have extensive knowledge of indigenous seeds and farming technique. If women operate as a group they can exercise greater bargaining power over community resources than if they work individually. Secondly, according to the slogan ‘land goes to the tiller’, women cannot have the right over land. Though it is the women who cultivate land yet they hold no rights over it. It was said that land will go to the tiller. Women were not a llowed to plough the land not just because of heaviness of the work but it is considered against the customs. So though the women sow the seed and harvested the crops without which there would have been no production yet they were denied land rights just if they did not plough the land. Another argument that is put forward by patriarchal society which though has been captured by other scholars like Goody(1973, 1976) that if women were given rights on ancestral property then their marriages have been tried to control. This argument is refreshed by Agarwal through empirical evidence taking in account both immovable and movables given as dowry. Patriarchal society claims that they give women their due share when they depart from house after marriage. But it is not recorded on the paper neither it is distributed in a fair manner. Also generally immovable like land is not passed on to daughter due to various considerations of distance and marrying a non kin. So generally the dowry that t he daughter gets is not used by her rather her in-laws use it. It is very interesting how she has captured the fact that songs, words and silence has been used as mediums of protest. Songs of folklore have been given as example to get an understanding of the fact that women interweave their sufferings in songs which pokes at patriarchal society. Sometimes silence and other times words were used as mediums to protest against the society which largely denies them rights. Small protests at home like daring to leave the house of husband is highlighted by Agarwal to point that woman actually suffered but did not come up openly to ask their rights. Various solutions have been put forward at the end of the book in the chapter ‘The long march ahead’. a)It is essential that state policies should be framed to incorporate gender equality b) Inheritance rather than dowry is the critical aspect for gaining bargaining power in household c) greater participation of women in jural bodies and representation in decision making bodies at village level d) women can acquire land rights as a group as it promotes infrastructural support. These solutions are expressed by Agarwal as, (p.494) â€Å"The shift in approach from welfare oriented to empowerment oriented, from top-down to participative, and from individual focused to group focused, in the 1980s, is an important step forward.† Agarwal concludes that struggle for gender equity is no different from struggles on many other fronts such as for democratic rights, against communalism etc. Also there has been increasing interaction among women groups internationally across Asia which has the potential for catalysing the formation of regional pressure groups around common concerns. It is not very clear how giving land rights will improve condition of women and productivity of land as there are many other empirical evidence other than those quoted by her that reveal in opposite direction. Whether land rights could be a single solution to various problems faced by women is doubtful. But land rights could be considered to be an essential first step towards women empowerment. As Agarwal makes it clear that what has crucial bearing on gender relation is not just rights over economic resources but also how, that is the process through which it is acquired. Acquiring those rights will require simultaneous struggles agains t many different facets of gender inequalities embedded in social norms and practices, access to public decision-making bodies at every level, gendered ideas and representations, and so on. It will require shifts in power balances in women’s favour in several different arenas: within the household, in the community and the market, and at different tiers of the state apparatus. REFERENCES: Bina Agarwal â€Å"Women’s Land Rights and the Trap of Neo-Conservatism: A Response to Jackson† (2003), Journal of Agrarian change 571-585 Bina Agarwal, Gender and land rights revisited: Exploring the new prospects through the state, family and market, Journal of Agrarian Change, 2003, 184-224 Cecile Jackson â€Å"Gender Analysis of Land: Beyond Land Rights for Women?† (2003) 3 Journal of Agrarian Change 453-480 Indu Agnihotri â€Å"Bringing Land Rights Centre-Stage† (1996), Economic and Political Weekly [1] Agarwal, Journal of Agrarian Change, 2003 [2] Indu Agnihotri â€Å"Bringing Land Rights Centre-Stage† (1996), Economic and Political Weekly [3] Cecile Jackson â€Å"Gender Analysis of Land: Beyond Land Rights for Women?† (2003) 3 Journal of Agrarian Change 453-480 [4] Agarwal Bina â€Å"Women’s Land Rights and the Trap of Neo-Conservatism: A Response to Jackson† (2003), Journal of Agrarian change 571-585

Pain assessment.

Pain assessment. CHAPTER-II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Review of literature is traditionally understood as a systematic and critical review of most important scholarly literature on a particular topic. According to Abdullah (1965) review of literature helps the researcher to analyze existing literature to generate research questions to identify what is known and not known about the topic and describe methods of inquiry used in earlier work, including their success and shortcoming. The purpose of review of literature involved in any research study is to become Knowledgeable in that field as much as possible this is the in depth search of the prior research. Research and non research literature were reviewed and organized under the following. Studies and literatures related to pain and pain assessment Studies and literatures related play distraction Techniques on Pain Studies and literatures related to Music distraction on Pain 1. Studies and literatures related to pain and pain assessment. Srouji R, et al., (2010) conducted a study on Pain assessment and non pharmacological management. He concluded that pain perception in children is complex, and is often difficult to assess. The distractions techniques are provided by nurses to manage pain in children is most effective when adapted to the developmental level of the child. Stinson J, et al., (2008) had done the systematic reviews on the effectiveness of pharmacological and non pharmacological management of acute procedure-related pain in children (n=1469) of one to 18 years. The reviewed findings suggested that distraction and hypnosis were effective for management of acute procedure-related pain in hospitalized children. Hockenberry and wilon et al., (2007) reported that brain perceives pain, there is a release of inhibitory neurotransmitters to hinder the transmission of pain and helps to produce on analgesic effect. This inhibition of the pain impulse is the fourth phase of the nociceptive process known as modulation. A protective reflex response also occurs with pain receptions. So while assessing pain intensity in children requires special techniques, therefore assessment requires using word such as owive, boo-boo. There are some unique tools available to measure pain intensity in children. Wongs (2007) stated that pain is often associated with fears, anxiety, and stress and non-pharmacological techniques, such as distraction, relaxation, guided imagery, and cutaneous stimulation provide coping strategies that may help reduce pain perception, make pain more tolerable, decrease anxiety, and enhance the effectiveness of analgesics. The strategies are safe, non invasive, and inexpensive, and most are independent nursing functions. The strategies that are appropriate for the childs age, pain intensity, interest, and abilities is often necessary to determine the most effective approach. Herr and. et.al., (2006) expressed that the child is unable to communicate the pain perception. So often the child requires special attention during assessment. Children who are developmentally delayed, 15 are psychotic, critically ill, dementia are examined with various pain behaviors assessment tools. Although it is important to understand that the pain is measured by using a pain-behavior scale. These tools identify the presence of pain, but not determine the intensity of pain. Joseph, Zeltzer, (2000) They state that there are three factors to assess pediatric pain: pain sensitivity, coping skills, and cognitive ability. Pain Sensitivity ascertained that pain sensitivity highly depends on childrens temperaments. Studies have shown that children with more pain-sensitive temperaments demonstrate increased reports of pain and anxiety during painful medical procedures. Significant differences in pediatric distress were found when those children received psychological interventions prior to the medical procedure. Their distress levels were significantly lower with the psychological intervention, which suggests that the interventions may benefit most children who are pain sensitive. Lara J. Spagrud.et.al (2003) conducted a study that suggested that the face pain scale revise, is a useful self report tool for assessing pain intensity in preschool and school age children who may not be able to use other pediatric self report pain measurement tools such as visual analog or numeric rating scales. Salantera S, Lauri S, Salmi TT, Aantaa R (1999) had done a survey on nursing activities and outcomes of care in the assessment, management, and documentation of childrens pain.(N=303) and retrospective chart review of 50 consecutive cases of operation of acute appendicitis was carried out. The results showed that nurses assess pain by observation of childs behavior and changes in physiology. The author suggested that development of pain assessment and documentation practices is needed in all settings. Cheryl. A. Gilbert et.al, (1999) conducted videotaped study to determinethe pain level based on facial expression to assess post operative pain in the age group of 13-74 months(N=48).Results demonstrated that face scale serve as a valid tool to assess persistent pain in young children. Carroll et.al., (1998) Reported that the degree of pain to which a child focuses attention can influence pain perception. Increased attention has been associated with increased pain response. So the nurses have to apply the various pain relief interventions such as distraction, relaxation, guided imaginary and massage. etc. MaiklerVE. (1991) conducted a study on effects of a skin refrigerant and age on the pain responses of infants receiving immunizations. The results showed that MANOVA revealed fewer distress behaviors following refrigerant spray and more complex, varied behavioral responses for older infants. The findings provide further evidence that infants perceive pain and that nursing interventions for pain reduction should be tested and extended to the very young. Rice L J. (1989) conducted a study on acute pain management in pediatric patients. Findings indicated that children often do not express pain in terms that are easily understood by adults. Distraction by parents or other factors may address the emotional component of pediatric pain. This review of acute pain management in children examines traditional practices as well as recent developments in acute pain management in infants and children. Schechter NL. (1985) conducted a study on pain control in children. He concluded that pain is not solely a fixed neurophysiologic response to a noxious stimulus but interaction of variables such as age, cognitive set, personality, ethnic background, and emotional state of the child. When approaching to pain in children, a high index of suspicion is necessary to determine the difficulty of verbalizing their discomfort. Play techniques are important in distraction from pain by nursing, medical, or child life personnel should be considered. Preparation of the child for procedures is often helpful as some of the fear of the unknown is eliminated. 2. Studies and literatures related play distraction Techniques Weiss KE, Dahlquist LM, Wohlheiter K. (2011) conducted a descriptive study on the effects of interactive and passive distraction on Cold Presser pain in Preschool-aged Children (N=60).Participants showed significantly higher pain tolerance during both interactive and passive distraction relative to baseline. They concluded that interactive and passive video game distraction appears to be effective for preschool-aged children during laboratory pain exposure. Uman LS, McMurtry CM (2009) had done the randomized control trial (N=1380) to examined the efficacy of seven psychological interventions like suggestion, breathing exercises, child directed distraction, parent-led distraction, nurse-led distraction on infants and children (1 month 11 years) for reducing pain and distress during routine childhood immunizations. The results showed that nurse-led distraction was effective in reducing distress (SMD, -0.40; 95% CI, -0.68 to -0.12; P = 0.005). The study findings suggested that combined cognitive-behavioral interventions, breathing exercises, child-directed distraction, nurse-led distraction, are effective in reducing the pain and distress associated immunizations. Miller K, et al., (2009) conducted a study on multimodal distraction to relieve pain in children undergoing acute medical procedures. They used hand held multimodal distraction device (MMD). Pain and anxiety scores were measured by Modified Faces, Legs, Activity, Cry and Consol ability Scale, Faces Pain Scale-Revised, Visual Analogue Scale and Wong-Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale. The study findings show MMD is more effective in reducing the pain and anxiety experienced by children in acute medical procedures. MMD is continuing to be trialed and is continuing to show positive clinical outcomes. Murphy G. (2009) had done a study on the effectiveness of distraction techniques for venepuncture. The findings show that distraction has been shown to reduce procedural distress in children. Further the study revealed that passive distraction is more effective than active distraction during venepuncture and that the effectiveness of a particular technique depends on the attention capacity of the child andtheir engagement in the distraction activity. Windich-BiermeierA (2007) had done a study on children and adolescents (N=50) ages 5 to 18, to evaluate the pain on distraction techniques during venipuncture by using self-selected distracters (i.e., bubbles, virtual reality glasses, or handheld video games, play toys) The design adopted for this study was intervention-comparison group design (n=28) and (n=22). The study participants demonstrated significantly less fear (P Cohen LL, et al., (2006) in their randomized control study on infants (n=136) (range=1-21 months; M=7.6 months, SD=5.0 months) and their parents to investigate the effectiveness of movie distraction in reducing immunization distress during their routine vaccinations. The behaviors were assessed by visual analog scale and a behavioral observation rating scale. The results indicated that parents and infants in the study group engaged in higher rates of distraction than experimental group both prior to and during recovery from the injection. The study findings suggested that a simple and practical distraction intervention can provide some distress relief to infants during routine injections. DAntonio IJ. (2006) conducted a study on use of therapeutic play in hospitals. He stated that play can be a tool to understand and intervene with pediatric patients. They develop a plan for purposeful play programs or play sessions with nurses who are clinical specialists, early childhood educators, and others who have expert knowledge of children and play equipment for the special needs of hospitalized children. For some children, hospitalization is a challenging experience that promotes a sense of competence and for others hospitalization is an experience that results in a negative outcome. Nurses can use play to provide pediatric patients with emotional and cognitive growth-promoting activities which facilitate a more positive hospital experience and long-term outcome. Cohen LL. (2002) had done the randomized trial (N=90) on reducing infant immunization distress through nurse directed distraction. Infants and their parents were randomly assigned to a distraction condition (i.e., nurses used stimuli to divert infants attention) or a typical care condition. The research outcome was measured by observational scale, parent and nurse ratings, and infant heart rate. Results indicated that infants engaged in distraction showed reduced behavioral distress. ThitipornUdomkittti(2001) investigated the effect of distraction on acute pain in infants. Results revealed that acute pain in infants who were distracted by a toy during receiving immunization had significantly lower mean of behavioral pain scores (p Sparks (2001) examined the effect of two forms of distraction on injection pain in a convenience sample of 105 preschool children. The results showed that both forms of distraction, bubble blower and touch, significantly reduced pain perceptions (P Bowen AM, (1999) had done the study to compare two brief, inexpensive distraction techniques for children receiving immunizations. Preschool children (n = 80) were assigned to a party blower intervention, a pinwheel intervention, or a control group. Nurses were instructed to use standard instructions for the control group, and to simply provide the distracter and encourage use, but not to spend time trying to train the child or force them to use it, for the other groups. Results of planned comparisons indicated significant party blower results in the childrens ratings of reduced distress (P Megal, Houser, Gleaves (1998) examined the effects of audio taped lullabies on physiological and behavioral distress and perceived pain among children during routine immunization. The samples were 99 healthy children age 3-6 years old. Half of them received the musical intervention during the immunization, while the other half did not. Children in each group were assessed pain and distress during five phases: baseline, pre immunization, during the immunization, after Band-Aid application, and 2 minutes after phase 4. Physiological methods included heart rate and blood pressure and self-report pain assessment by using the Oucher Scale were used to measure pain intensity. Besides, they were also assessed behavioral distress. Results indicated that no significant differences were found between experimental and control groups for heart rate, blood pressure, or Oucher scores. It may be possible that the reflective of the ages of children in the studies, 3-6 years, may not be able to focu s their attention on distraction devices. However, total distress scores of the experimental group were significantly less than the control group. French, Painter, Coury (1994) studied the effect of distraction technique on pain in preschool children receiving diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus immunization. The samples were 149 children aged 4 to 7 years old who received the injection, one with and one without taught to blow out air repeatedly during the injection, as if they were blowing bubbles. Although self-report measures by parents, children, and nurses were not different between control and experiment Conditions, children who were taught to blow out air repeatedly during the injection had significantly fewer pain behaviors (P 2.Studies and literatures related to Music distraction on Pain Balan R, (2009) had done the comparative study on Indian classical instrumental music and local anesthetic cream on children aged 5-12 yrs in terms of in reducing pain during venepuncture was conducted at a tertiary care center. They were randomly assigned to 3 groups: local anesthetic (LA), music or placebo (control) group. The study findings showed that, using EMLA or Indian classical instrumental music can be significantly reduced pain in children. The difference between VAS scores with LA and music is not always significant. Bufalini A. (2009) conducted a study on pediatric patients undergoing painful procedures (lumbar injection, bone marrow aspiration, and arterial catheter) to assess the role of interactive music. Data significance was accepted with values of P Evans S (2008) conducted a study on complementary and alternative medicine for acute procedural pain in children. He suggested that music therapy also has gained some attention and for the most part shows promise in the pediatric acute pain setting. Noguchi LK. (2006) had done the study on the effect of music versus non music on behavioral signs of distress and self-report of pain in pediatric injection patients. Music has been examined as a potential distraction during pediatric medical procedures, but research findings have been mixed, due, in part, to the fact that children were primarily instructed to merely listen to the music. (n=64) The children 4- to 6(1/2) -years receiving routine immunizations were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: musical story, spoken story, or standard care/control. Participants in the musical story condition tended to be less distressed and report less pain than participants in the other two conditions, although these differences were not statistically significant. Subsequent analysis indicated that children who received more injections tended to benefit more from the music intervention, in terms of their perceived pain. Loewy,J.V(1997) states that music distraction using live, familiar music with unusual instruments can be effective in capturing and holding the childs attention during painful procedure, such as needle punctures. Malone (1996) conducted a study that focused on studying the effects of live music on the distress of pediatric patients receiving venipunctures, intravenous starts, and heel sticks. The study results indicated that all age groups appear to benefit from the live music as an effective method of distraction. The patients that demonstrated the most significant difference were children under the age of one. The distraction techniques were less cognitively advanced than the music therapy approaches for older children; rather, they attempt to soothe and relax the infant in order to distract him from his surroundings. Fowler-Kerry S, (1987) Conducted the study to assess the value of two cognitive strategies (suggestion and music distraction) in reducing pain in children. Two hundred children, aged 4.5-6.5 years, receiving routine immunization injections were randomly assigned to one of the intervention groups in this factorial study. The groups were designated as: distraction, distraction with suggestion, suggestion and control. Subjects reported their pain using a 4-point pain scale. Distraction was found to significantly decrease pain whereas suggestion did not. The results of this study support the use of music distraction in the reduction of injection pain in children.